Church History attempts to understand the
Church as a historical reality, incarnate in human history (GS: 1, 2, 4, 40,
42-44). The transition from Jewish to Hellenistic Christianity and the
emergence of Patristic Theology (DV 8) are important milestones in the history
of Christianity. In course of time,
Eastern and Western Churches went separate
ways and developed their own specific spirituality and theology. The Reformation
divided Western Christianity, and the Enlightenment challenged its place in
Western society. The modern missionary movement initiated the world-wide
expansion of Christianity. The emergence of the Ecumenical Movement and the
Second Vatican Council are the two most important events in contemporary
Christianity.
1. Church as a Historical Reality Incarnate in Human History [GS 1, 2, 4,
40, 42-44]
History
is a human act, connected to / bound to a culture and it has various
consequences. One such is, history is provisional i.e. it is limited, does not
say everything – silences or suppresses something. The study of history helps
us to have a deep knowledge to unearth the facts and to challenge the written
history. Since, history is incomplete i.e. can’t claim absolute truth, when we
study it we need ‘historical
consciousness’ i.e. a consciousness of being finite, provisional,
contingent, limited etc. Hence, our knowledge is limited/ incomplete and our
interpretation too is limited/ provisional.
This
has a tremendous consequence on our understanding of church history. The church
is part of human history. Hence, the church affects the human history and is
affected by it. The relation between church and history is theological,
because we believe that church /world is permeated by God’s spirit. It does not
downplay the role of human beings. The incarnational principle is that the ‘Divine
does not override the human’ [otherwise it would nullify the incarnation
itself]. Instead, spirit facilitates or cooperates with human
freedom!]
Till
Vat II, the understanding of the church was static, church as unchanging
reality, guided by God’s spirit, having fullness of truth [therefore, nothing
to receive from outside]; free from error, perfect society (world is an enemy.)
However, after Vat II, this understanding has been changed, especially through
the ‘historical consciousness’
brought by the decree [GS: Pastoral
Constitution of the Church in the Modern World, 1, 2, 4, 40, 42-44].
GS 1- speaks of deep sense of
solidarity of the church with the whole of human family stating; joy and hope,
grief and anguish of the world are of the church as well.
GS 2 -The church opens itself to
the entire world [reaching out to all] not only to its members [sons and daughters
of the church]
GS 4- States the
responsibility of the church in reading the signs of the time and interpreting
them and addresses the issues.
GS 40 -Dialogue/ relationship
between church and the world. [Church is called to be leaven in the world.]
Gs 42 -What the church offers to
the society through it nature and mission i.e. universal.
Gs 43- Christians have a duty towards
the world [what church gives -GIVE]
Gs 44 -What the church receives
from the modern world. [RECEIVE].
Benefits
of studying the history of the church could be that it liberates us [from the
past], healthy sense of relativism [church, both human and divine can make
mistakes!], to understand the evolution of structure and institutions of the
church, to refrain from absolutizing the recent past, gives us theological
culture [church and its developments, etc.]
2. The
Transition from Jewish to Hellenistic Christianity
Christianity
was born in a world, which had already its own religious, cultural, social and
political structures of Judaism. The early Christians were Jewish Christians
who were basically Jews [went to the synagogues/circumcised], but had sme
Christian elements [like believed in Christ Jesus, baptism, breaking of the
bread]. But Christianity was not meant to be only for Jews; but for others as
well. Hence, there was a movement/ transition from Jewish to Hellenistic
Christianity. The chief proponent of this shift/ transition was St. Paul [is the very first example of
inculturation], who made a paradigm shift in Christianity i.e. the famous Jerusalem council in 50 A.D [Acts: 15].
There was an argument between Peter and Paul in which Paul wins his bid and
becomes instrumental in changing the Jewish face of Christianity. It was in Antioch [Hellenistic centre] that for
the first time thee followers of Christ were called Christians. [Acts 10:
Cornelius’ episode].
The
other factors that contributed to the decline of Jewish Christianity: -destruction
of the temple [70 Ad]; exclusivism of Jews [Christians expelled from synagogues,
etc.]
The factors that helped for the initial
spread of Christianity:-
A. External Factors:- Common language,
unity of the empire, decadence of Greco-roman religion, attitude of the
Diaspora Jews [receptivity], tolerance by Romans of other religious, Pax Romana [peace and prosperity].
B. Internal Factors: - i) Christianity offering authoritative
and satisfying solutions [life after death, etc.] ii) High moral standards of Christians, iii) Appealing doctrines, iv)
Universal character of Christianity, v)
Miracles, wonders, examples of martyrs, etc.
3. The Emergence of Patristic Theology [DV
8]
‘Fathers
of the Church,’ is a technical title applied to certain ecclesiastical writers
of Christian antiquity. They played an important role in the history of the
church. As a young church when there was a transition from Jewish to
Hellenistic [Greco-Roman civilization] Christianity, it faced lots of
challenges and difficulties in communicating the message of Jesus across the
diverse socio-political and cultural atmosphere. In this context, fathers of
the church, through their writings, defended the traditions and nourished the
faith of the church [defended the faith against Greco-Roman world]. They also
made this tradition relevant to different contexts through their writings,
interpretations, homilies, etc. Thus, the tradition that was handed down by the
apostles made progress in the church. Qualifications that are regarded as essential to be fathers of the
church are [four]:
i. Antiquity - belonging to a certain
period in the church [East: ends in 750, West: ending with 636, -
Basically first three centuries].
ii. Orthodoxy -The doctrine or basic
teachings of the church [doctrinal truth] – [there could be errors].
iii. Holiness of Life – Harmony
between life and doctrine - practising basic Christian values.
iv. Ecclesiastical Approval- Church
accepts them implicitly or explicitly.
The age of the fathers [patristic period]
could be divided into 2 epochs: -
1. Ante-Nicene Fathers [Up to Council of
Nicea 325].
In this period,
the fathers of the church and their writings can broadly be classified into 3
divisions.
A. Apostolic Fathers: They are people
who are regarded as the immediate successors of apostles [had personal contact
with apostles or instructed by their disciples]. Their teachings can be
considered as the ‘echo’ of the apostles’ teachings. Hence, their
writings have lots of significance, which are pastoral [letters/epistles]
and eschatological [meant for unity in the community]. Some of them are Clement
of Rome, Ignatius of Antioch [monoepiscopacy- under one bishop], and Shepherd
of Hermas, etc.
B. The Greek Apologists: - [Apologia = defense]
- defending the faith. They [Greek Apologists] defended the faith and the
church by their reasoned explanation of faith. They attacked paganism and
refuted all the accusations leveled against Christians [eating, drinking and cannibalism].
In this process, they laid a foundation for theology [first theologians]. Some
of them are Justin Martyr [logos], Athenagoras of Athens, Theophilus of Antioch,
and Irenaeus of Lyons [Economy
of Salvation i.e. God’s plan of salvation and Recapitulation i.e. entire
creation taken back to God].
C. Anti-heretical Literature [Theological Refutation]
There
were many heresies which threatened the purity of faith and unity of the
church. The church responded to them in two ways i.e. being defensive and
offensive. The theological writers took upon themselves the task of
exposing the errors of the heretics by explaining the true doctrine of the
church from scripture and tradition. Some of them are [from the school of Alexandria]
- Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Tertullian, Cyprian of Carthage, etc.
2. The Golden Age: - It was a time of
first four councils [Nicea 325, Constantinople I, Ephesus, Chalcedon] at
which the basic truths with regard to Christology, Trinity were formed. It was
a time of peace and prosperity, and so Christianity flourished / literature
flourished, no more defending against any heresies [apologists]; but a lot of
importance to intense theological works, defining dogmas and doctrines and
their interpretation.
This age is further divided into two:
A. The Golden Age of the Greek
Patristic Literature
- The golden Age
of the Latin Patristic Literature.
A. The Golden Age of the Greek Patristic
Literature
In
this period apart from Athenasius of Alexandria and Cyril of Alexandria, we
have Cappadocian Fathers (3): Basil
the great, Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory of Nazianzus, who clarified the
doctrine of Trinity against Arianism [who denied the full divinity of Christ -
as creature]. Also John Chrysostom [Gold mouth] was known for his ‘Homiletic
Theology’ (700 homilies) -about ‘social justice.’
B. The Golden Age of Latin Patristic
Literature
There
are many Latin fathers like Hillary of Poitiers, Ambrose of Milan, Augustine of
Hippo, and Jerome. Hillary of Poitiers
developed a Trinitarian Theology based on scripture [unlike others who depended
on philosophy]. Ambrose of Milan was
a man of intense pastoral, social and political activity. Jerome was a man of the Bible. He said, “To be ignorant of the Scripture
is to be ignorant of Christ.” Augustine
of Hippo was the most famous of them all, made a significant impact on the
church. His doctrines on grace, trinity, redemption and church continue to
affect the church even today. He is also known as the ‘Father of Western Christology.’
Why Study ‘Fathers of the Church?’ - Reasons:
a. They are an integral part of
Christian tradition.
b. They lived close to the beginning of
Christianity [culturally, chronologically, and psychologically].
c. They were pastors [practical in
nature/ wrote to instruct people].
d. They belonged to an ecumenical
church [undivided church].
e. They were the founders of theology
[used Greek philosophy].
f. They belonged to a pluralistic
tradition [pluralism].
4. The Eastern and Western Schism and their
Own Specific Spirituality and Theology.
In the course of time the Eastern
and Western churches were separated due to various reasons. The fundamental/main
cause was the conflict/ break between Rome and Constantinople. The division
between them came about due to various reasons: -
a. Acacian Schism- the excommunication
of the Patriarch Acacias by Pope Felix [484], by imposing Roman Primacy on
Constantinople.
b. ‘Iconoclast’ Controversy [iconoclasm = image breaking] - Controversy
regarding the veneration of icons, images etc, which the Eastern Church had and
the Western wanted to destroy them – led to the alienation of Eastern Churches.
c. Potian Schism – mutual
excommunication of Patriarch Potius and Pope Nicholas.
d. Mutual Excommunication [Rome and
Constantinople] in 1054 –The final break between East and West came in the year
1054 - mutual excommunication by Pope Leo IX and Michael.
[Though union was proclaimed by councils: II
Lyons [1274], Florence [1838]; this excommunication
was lifted only in 1965 by Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athanegoras of
Constantinople in a Joint Declaration.]
e. The 4th Crusade – During which
Constantinople was sacked, city was plundered, Greek clergy were obliged to
take an oath of obedience to Rome [the break was complete].
The Salient Features of Eastern Christianity
[Spirituality/Theology]
i) Monasticism: Resulted in the East - still
prevails in the church.
ii) Veneration of Icons: Sacramental -
a special form of communication between the believer and God.
iii) Byzantine Liturgy: messianic banquet
of the exalted Lord with his community.
iv) The importance to the Holy Spirit –
Filioque
of the West is rejected, [‘double
procession’ i.e. from the Father and the Son] because it undermines the personhood
and autonomy of the Spirit. Therefore, the Spirit is from the Father,
through the Son.
v) Collegial understanding of Roman Primacy.
All bishops are equal; but Bishop of Rome [elder brother] has first place in
honour [Not in supremacy and not in jurisdiction].
vi) Church as Conciliar: It is not
monarchical.
[They
accept only first seven councils, seven sacraments, more role to laity, married
clergy, unleavened bread, no belief in purgatory]
5. The Reformation divided the Western
Christianity
The reformation is an all embracing
term [could refer to Lutheran movement, Calvinism, radical reformation] which
led to the disintegration of western Christianity in the16th
century. The various causes are: - Dissolution of Christendom and the rise of
nation states like France, England, and Spain; Renaissance Papacy; Humanism – return
to Christian and classical antiquity [against Scholasticism]; Crisis in Scholasticism;
Mysticism; and Anti-clericalism [Popes].
However, the immediate cause was the Practice of Indulgence (i.e. the
remission by the Church of the temporal penalty due to forgiven sin in virtue
of the merits of Christ and saints; Church’s right to administer in
consideration of prayer, money and works.]
Reformation: It was Martin Luther
who started the reformation [95 theses]. Later Zwingli and Calvin became
significant reformers. The main theology of the reformers includes – Justification
by faith [sola fide], return to Scripture
[sola scriptura], sacraments [only two], Church as congregation of
people, predestination [a choice of god]. Hence
they had three main characteristics:-
1.
Primacy of Scripture: Return to the
Scripture/gospel of Christ.
2. Primacy of Christ: Christ is the only Mediator
between God and human beings.
3. Primacy of Grace and Faith: Against all
human achievements and works /efforts.
Counter Reformation: It was
basically a reaction by the Church to the Reformation, through which the Church
attempted to clarify dogmatic and doctrinal positions, but no
real reform [renewal at all]. The Council of Trent reaffirmed the 2 sources
of faith: Scripture and Tradition, 7 sacraments, etc. Its main
objective was to establish true doctrine and maintain discipline.
As a result, a re-establishment of Roman Catholicism emerged and there was also
a suppression of the Protestant Reformation through political and military
power by the Church.
6. The Enlightenment [Modernity] Challenged
Church’s Place in Western Society
From the middle of the 17th
century till the end of IWW, the period characterized by Reason [vs.
faith], Progress [Vs Tradition] and Nation [Vs Church/empire] is
called Enlightenment /Modernity. It had tremendous consequences for
Christianity [challenged its positions]. This was rationalistic,
anti-institutional and individualistic. The important elements of enlightenment
were revolutions in science, philosophy, culture, theology, state, society,
technology, industry, etc. The church reacted sharply, emphasizing ‘Traditional
Religion’ [Anti-modernism].
7. The Modern Missionary Movement (The
World Mission)
The
Modern Missionary Movement began with the World Mission that arose in 16th
century. However, St. Paul, as a
missionary, spread Christianity and by 500 AD the entire Roman Empire was
Christian. By 1500 the entire Europe became Christian and Christianity was
basically European.
The agents of mission were: - Local Episcopal Church, the Monks
and the States.
The
characteristics of mission are: (The way it was undertaken) -
i)
Use of Force - following Augustine’s
theory of ‘Just War’ and Emperor Justinian’s theory of ‘One Kingdom, One Church,
One Faith.’
ii)
Mass Conversion: - a political
decision.
iii)
Organized Mission: - of Irish
monks and Gregory the Great [first pope to undertake mission; sends
Augustine with 40 monks to Anglo-Saxon Mission.]
iv)
Inculturation: - . Cyril and Methodius
– ‘Slavonic language’ and Pope Gregory I encourages it.
v)
Mission to Muslims and Mongols [13th
and 14th century] by Mendicant Orders.
vi)
The Geographical Discoveries and Trade:
Contributed to the spread of Christianity [e.g. 1492 Columbus - America]; 1498
Vasco da Gama - India]
Modern missionary movement can be broadly
divided into two: -
1.
Spanish mission [ who went to the west]
2.
Portuguese mission [Africa and Asia]
1.
Spanish Mission: They undertook
mission by applying ‘clean-sweep method’ [i.e. destruction of
everything, cultures, religions, society, etc.] and implantation of European
Christianity.
2.
Portuguese Mission: They too applied
the ‘clean–sweep method’ [exception:
Matheo Ricci, de Nobili, etc.] imbued with ‘Apologetic Theology of Council
of Trent’ i.e. absolute conviction that Christianity is the only true religion.
8. The Ecumenical Movements
Christians [different denominations]
working all over the world began to realize the need for unity [disunity was an
obstacle for conversion]. The World Missionary
Conference at Edinburgh in 1910
was the beginning of the Ecumenical Movement. Protestants are
considered as the pioneers of this movement. After several attempts in
1948, the World Council of Churches
was founded at Amsterdam [300 churches from 100 countries]. Catholic Church
was a late beginner, because Pre-Vatican attitude was negative,
and non-cooperative. But, in 1960, Pope John 23rd established
a ‘Secretariat for Promoting Christian unity.’ Second Vatican Council has a decree on Ecumenism [Unitatis Redintegratio]’- Key ideas are: Ecumenism is guided by the
Spirit, Church acknowledges its guilt, True Church subsists in the Catholic Church but not co-extensive with it
and real ecumenism is possible only with the ‘change of heart and attitude.’
9. Second Vatican Council
Pius IX’s attempt [Vatican I] to
create order in the Church was a failure and proved to be counter-productive
i.e. leading to clericalism, centralization and uniformity. The Church began to
realize that it should respond to the world positively. Hence, Poe John 23rd
calls for II Vatican council with its goals like – Updating the Church
and Unity of all Christians [more pastoral, than dogmatic]. There were 4
dogmatic constitutions, 9 decrees and 3 declarations. Karl Rahner says, “The fundamental significance of this Council is
that for the first time in history, the Church became truly a ‘World Church’.
The significant contributions of Vat II are: - Church as People of God,
a shift from Institution to Mystery,
Papal Monarchy to Collegiality, Hierarchy to People of God, Universal Church to
Communion of Local Churches, Centrality of the Eucharist, Recognition of the
Values of Pluralism and Freedom, Commitment to Secular Values, Struggles for Justice,
Peace, Solidarity with the Poor, etc.
